Beef Cattle Terminology Crossword Puzzle the Form Shape and Isual Appearance of an Anial

Artificial Insemination for Beef Cattle

By Glenn Selk

Leap To:
• Learning Artificial Insemination
• Heat Detection Efficiency
• Timing of Artificial Insemination
• Semen Handling
• Tank Management
• During Insemination
• References

Many producers of purebred and commercial beef cattle can profitably use artificial insemination (AI) on virgin heifers or on the cow herd or both. Success with artificial insemination requires attention to detail in all areas of herd management. One of the most important factors affecting the success of the program is the manager's mental attitude. He or she must totally want to brand AI work and instill this commitment into each link in the chain of management decision. The weakest link sets the level of success of the operation. Should whatsoever aspect of management become subpar, AI conception rates will be reduced, most likely to the extent it volition cancel many of the benefits the technique offers. Many managerial decisions relative to feeding, facilities, fences and corrals, equipment, sire selection, will be necessary. Both a sound wellness plan and good diet are requirements of whatever breeding program but become an absolute essential ingredient for artificial insemination. In improver, more labor and skill are needed especially in the initial phases of the program.

Learning Artificial Insemination

Supervised instruction and guidance are essential because without acceptable grooming, valuable AI equipment and semen could exist seriously damaged. In order to ensure high fertility, frozen semen requires very special storage and handling techniques. Adequate training is also essential to minimize risk of injury to either a valuable animal or to yourself.

AI Training Schools are available from several semen suppliers. The objective of these schools is to teach the skills required to handle semen, inseminate cows, and manage a successful AI program. Three basic areas of teaching should be provided past AI Grooming Schools including:

1. Insemination technique: developing through live animate being practice, the ability to skillfully and accurately place semen at the proper location within the reproductive tract using sanitary and correct techniques.
2. Semen handling: developing through practice, the ability to properly handle, thaw and prepare semen for insemination, according to the recommendations of semen-producing organizations.
3. Reproductive management: preparation in the importance of heat detection, herd health, and full herd management for the development and continued success of an AI program.

The National Association of Brute Breeders (NAAB) is an clan of companies that service the artificial insemination business organisation. NAAB has recommended minimum standards for AI Grooming Schools. Address inquiries to: Technical Manager, National Association of Fauna Breeders, P.O. Box 1033, Columbia, MO 65205. A potential student should ask if the school considered meets the following recommendations:

1.  6 hours of live cow insemination practice washed over a minimum of three carve up sessions.
2.  At least two cows per student per course, with each student having access to a minimum of 10 practice cows.
3.  A maximum of eight students per teacher.

Practise non expect an AI Grooming School to do information technology all for you. Supervised training is just the beginning; after that, continuous practise is necessary to fully develop the required skills.

Heat Detection and Beef AI Programs

The most limiting factor in bogus insemination programs is the proper detection of cows or heifers in rut. Rut, or "heat," is that period of time that occurs every 18-24 days in sexually mature, nonpregnant female cattle when they are receptive to mounting activity by bulls or other cows. In beef cattle operations where artificial insemination is the means of breeding the females, the herdsman must recognize and interpret a cow'due south heat signals. Proper timing of the bogus insemination is necessary to achieve a high percent of conceptions in the cows that are bred artificially.

Considerable amounts of research have been conducted on the various factors contributing to the efficiency with which cows are detected in heat. When all is considered, i of the key factors is the skill of the human being performing the oestrus detection. With an AI program, people presume the aforementioned responsibility as the bull for accurately detecting heat and the proper timing of insemination. Thus, the dilemma for the inseminator is determining which cows are in a "standing heat" and when that oestrus occurs.

A moo-cow is fertile simply when an egg has been released (or ovulated) from the ovary. This occurs about 10-14 hours later on the menstruum chosen "standing heat" ends. Because sperm demand time in the cow'south reproductive tract before they are capable of fertilizing the egg, insemination should be made several hours earlier ovulation. This means that for the highest fertility, cows or heifers should be inseminated in the latter ii-thirds of heat or inside a few hours after having gone out of heat. This represents approximately 12-18 hours after the moo-cow offset comes in "standing heat."

Estrus Detection Efficiency

Heat detection efficiency (rate) is defined as the percentage of eligible cows that are actually seen or detected in heat. Several methods of calculating the efficiency with which heat is detected are bachelor. A detection rate of eighty-85 percent should exist achievable. The detection charge per unit tin be measured by the 24-Day Heat Detection Charge per unit Test, which is a examination that the producer can implement to cocky-evaluate the oestrus detection efficiency (or inefficiency).

In gild for cows to be included in the exam, they should be eligible to have heat cycles, at least l days post-calving for beefiness cows; be gratuitous of reproductive disorders such as cystic ovaries, pyometra, or other reproductive tract infections; and be nonpregnant. In addition, cows must have adequate torso condition to look nearly of them to be cycling. What producers are looking for is a grouping of cows that are most likely to brandish oestrus in the adjacent 24 days. Some of these cows will in fact be serviced during that interval, which will exclude them from the side by side 24-day list. At the end of the 24-day period, the number of cows detected in heat is divided by the total number of cows eligible to have estrous cycles. If the producer observed 50 cows but only 15 were detected in oestrus in 24 days that is a thirty% detection rate—not likewise good. If the producer finds 40 or more cows in heat during the 24-day test period for 80% or amend detection charge per unit, then a proficient AI program is possible.

A second method of self-evaluation of heat detection can be performed by keeping an accurate record of estrus dates. The average interval (in days) between detected heats is divided into the "expected" interval or 21 days. For example, if the average interval betwixt detected heats for all eligible cows is 25 days, and so the detection efficiency would be computed at 21/25, or 84%.

Heat Detection Requires Observation

The surest sign of oestrus is that of a moo-cow or heifer that permits other animals to mount her while she remains standing. This is the all-time sign of a cow's fertile period. Therefore, the nearly productive ways of determining which cows are in "standing heat" is to notice the cattle carefully for near 30 minutes at least twice per 24-hour interval. More frequent observations may as well be benign whenever information technology is practical. Estrous synchronization will aid in accurate heat detection and shorten the number of days that heat detection must exist done. Learn more than near estrous synchronization by reading OSU Fact Canvas ANSI-3163, "Estrous Synchronization of Cattle."

The all-time times of the solar day to observe cattle for heat detection are early on in the morning and at the last daylight in the evening. However, heat detection while cattle are eating at feed-bunks or hayracks is difficult because hungry cattle are often more interested in the feed than in each other. Table i from Cornell University researchers describes the percentage of cows showing signs of estrus at dissimilar times of the day.

By far the largest percentage of cows exhibit signs of estrus at the least convenient time of the day for accurate heat detection. This fact lone is considered a major cause of heat detection inefficiency. Many of the cows that do have a "standing rut" from midnight to six a.m. tin be observed as having "secondary" signs of rut at the fourth dimension of normal heat-detection on the previous evening. The secondary signs of oestrus include (1) a willingness to mount other cows, fifty-fifty though neither cow may be willing to stand for the mount, (2) roughened tail head or mud on the rump, which is prove that other animals have tried to mount her, (three) restlessness, which may be indicative of a cow about to exhibit heat (cows in pre-heat may bawl more than usual, head-butt, pace the contend, sniff or lick other cattle) and (four) clear stringy mucus discharge which may be hanging from the vulva or smeared on the pin-bones or rump of a cow almost to have oestrus or one already in oestrus. Bloody fungus often appears 2-3 days after estrus has occurred and should exist recorded in club to closely scout for heat in 17-21 days.

Tabular array 1. When Cows Evidence Rut

Time	Per centum cows showing estrus signs
half dozen a.thousand. - apex	22%
apex - 6 p.m.	ten%
vi p.m. - midnight	25%
midnight - half-dozen a.yard.	43%

Aids to Heat Detection

Several aids to heat detection are available for producers with artificial insemination programs. These aids include chin-brawl markers placed on androgenized cows or deviated "gomer" bulls. This is a device similar to a ball-bespeak pen that is strapped on the underneath side of the chin of an animate being expected to mount cows or heifers in heat. The ink in the chin-ball marker leaves colorful streaks on the back or rump of a cow that has been mounted or was attempted to be mounted. Another commercially available aid to heat detection is the "Kamar heatmount detector" (tradename). This device is glued to the rump (merely forward of the tailhead) of cows suspected to be in heat in the nigh future. Prolonged force per unit area (at least 3 seconds) from the brisket or chest of mounting animals volition plough the originally white detector to red. Using the heatmount detector will be more effective in those pastures with little or no low-hanging tree limbs, brush, or backrubbing devices since fake readings can occur.

An economic heat detection aid is used at many U.S. dairies. This method is called "tail-chalking" and involves only the pocket-sized expense of an oil-based "sale-barn" paint stick. The paint stick is available at many farm and livestock supply stores and comes in a multifariousness of colors. Orangish is oftentimes the color of choice, especially with producers who are color-blind.

The chalk (or livestock paint) is rubbed on the tail-head of cows to be rut detected. The chalk should exist placed from the imaginary line between the hook or hip bones back to and including the corner where the tail begins its vertical descent.

Some producers choose to chalk in a narrow strip in summer months (after shedding has occurred) and wider bands on winter hair coats. Most tail-chalking veterans put the chalk in a strip two to three inches wide. The length is important because of the dissimilar contact points possible when the moo-cow is mounted. In the bound, when cows are shedding, it is just nigh imperative that the area be curry-combed and so the applicator will deposit chalk instead of only rub off winter hair.

Beef cattle producers can tail-chalk cows, at most 50 days after calving, while the cows are crowded in a long working chute or alley. Replacement beef heifers could exist expected to have a high percentage of cycling animals when they are about 13-14 months of age and counterbalance approximately 65% of their expected mature body weight.

Reading the chalk strip is not hard but does require close ascertainment and some practice. When a moo-cow is just coming into heat and is being ridden but will non stand, the chalk will exist slightly smeared. Also, information technology volition oftentimes accept some of the riding animal'southward hair in it and both the hair and chalk will be ruffled frontwards, with a feathered appearance. When those atmospheric condition are spotted, write downwards the cow's number and sentinel her more than closely.

When she is in "continuing rut" and being ridden repeatedly, the chalk volition be mostly rubbed off. This moo-cow may have been in "continuing heat" during the previous nighttime. The moo-cow should exist watched to see if she does in fact allow other animals to mount her. If she does, then she is in "standing rut." If you do not observe the cow in "continuing estrus" but your barn records betoken that it is 18-24 days since she was last observed in heat or bred, then it is time for the cow to be bred. The rubbed off chalk indicates that she has been in "continuing heat" since you last observed her and still would be a good bet to inseminate.

The oil-based chalk is relatively rain-resistant and unlikely to be rubbed off in brush. After seven to x days, it volition take on a flaky, crusted appearance as information technology dries. Some AI technicians cull to re-chalk cows when the chalk becomes weathered and dried, simply no signs of riding have been credible. Occasionally, a moo-cow will lick off the chalk. Unremarkably, the obvious lick marks on the hair of the tail-head indicate that she had non been ridden.

Tail-chalking and other oestrus detection aids are tools to help skillful heat detection.

However, these "tools" should not be expected to replace the trusted method of spending a half-hr in the morning and a half-hour in the evening each mean solar day carefully observing the cattle. Encounter OSU Fact Sheet ANSI-4154, "Heat Detection Aids for Beefiness and Dairy AI."

Timing of Bogus Insemination

Maximum fertility to artificial insemination occurs when cows are bred nearly the end of "standing heat." Ovulation occurs about 12 hours later the terminate of standing oestrus. The 12-hour lead time allows the sperm cells to get through a process known every bit capacitation by the time the egg is released. Fertility decreases slightly when cows are bred a few hours on either side of this target, and decreased markedly when breeding occurs more than 12 hours away from the end of "standing rut."

A guide that has proved to work well for timing AI is called the AM/PM rule (Table 2). At the terminate of the morn heat detection period, animals detected the prior evening are bred; at the end of the evening heat detection menstruum, those observed that morn are bred. In some situations, AI must be employed once-a-day wherein all animals detected in the prior 24 hours are bred. Some studies show little decrease in fertility when this approach is used.

Table 2. Using the AM/PM Dominion

Cows Outset Showing Rut	Should be Bred	As well late for Good Results
In the morning	That evening	Adjacent Twenty-four hour period
In the evening	The adjacent morning	After iii:00 pm the next day

Semen Handling

The quality of frozen semen when it arrives at your farm or ranch is determined by the balderdash and organization that processed it. Merely once information technology arrives, it is up to you to have proper steps to ensure its viability.

Frozen bull semen can exist stored indefinitely, if it is maintained constantly at very low temperatures. The disquisitional temperature is approximately -112 degrees. Semen which is exposed to temperatures warmer than -112° F (fifty-fifty for a short time) and so returned to the storage tank may be damaged.

The extent of impairment depends upon how long the semen is exposed to the elevated temperatures. Although it is piece of cake to maintain frozen semen at a safe temperature, it is also easy to destroy it in a few moments of carelessness.

Tank Direction

The semen storage tank is a large vacuum-sealed metal bottle with an extremely efficient insulation organisation. Because of the vacuum bottle construction, the temperature tin can remain at -320°F (liquid nitrogen temperature) as long every bit at least 2 inches of liquid nitrogen is nowadays. Technical advances in design and construction have produced storage tanks with a liquid nitrogen property time of six to nine months.

Although semen storage tanks are well constructed, they notwithstanding are susceptible to harm from mishandling. Semen tanks should be kept in clean, dry, and well-ventilated areas. Avoid excessive movement of the tank. The inner bedchamber, which contains liquid nitrogen, is suspended from the outer trounce by the neck tube. Any abnormal stress on the neck tube, caused past sudden jarring or an excessive swinging motion, can crack the tube. This results in vacuum loss from the outer chamber.

To increase holding time, continue the tank in a cool location abroad from directly sunlight. Avoiding drafts from furnaces and outside air likewise helps prevent excessive nitrogen evaporation. Withal, make sure at that place is sufficient ventilation in the room to prevent possible suffocation which can be caused by excessive nitrogen gas in the air you breathe.

Protect the tank from corrosion by keeping information technology elevated to a higher place concrete or wet floors. Use boards or pallets. Option a location that is safe from children and vandals, but do not hide the tank; it must be placed where it can exist seen daily and where information technology tin can be monitored routinely for nitrogen level.

Finally, always exist watchful for a lid that is left off and for frost or sweat on the tank. Give detail attention to the cervix and vacuum plumbing equipment. Frost indicates that the vacuum insulation has been lost, and liquid nitrogen has been or is evaporating rapidly. If you suspect this has happened, apply a wooden yardstick to mensurate the amount of liquid in the tank. If the tank contains liquid nitrogen, the semen must be transferred to a good tank immediately. Should the tank be empty of liquid nitrogen information technology is doubtful that the semen is viable; it should be evaluated before it is used.

Retrieving Semen

In the typical subcontract semen tank, dangerous temperatures exist in the upper half of the neck tube. Exposure to these temperatures can occur when trying to locate a specific unit of semen or when transferring semen from tank to tank (Effigy 1). Thermal injury to sperm is permanent and cannot be corrected by returning semen to liquid nitrogen.

Figure i. Cross-section diagram of liquid nitrogen tank used to store semen.

In order to minimize thermal damage:

• Identify which canister contains the desired semen. A semen inventory which keeps runway of the location of each bull prevents unnecessary searching.
• Remove the canister from its storage position to the middle of the tank. Heighten the canister just high enough in the cervix region to grasp the desired cane of semen. Keep the canister tops no college than the frost line, or keep the tops of the canes no higher than two to three inches from the tank'southward top.
• Grasp the desired cane, and immediately lower the canister to the tank floor. Keep the cane as low in the tank as possible while removing the unit of semen. Use tweezers to remove the straw. If the straw is located in the upper goblet, bend back the meridian tab of the cane to a 45 caste bending. This will keep the straw from bending or breaking. The straw should exist removed within 10 seconds from the time the canister is raised into position.
• Immediately afterwards the unit of semen is immersed in water, return the cane to the canister by raising the canister upwardly over the cane. Render the canister to its storage position.
• Any time it takes more than 8 to x seconds to locate a particular cane, the canister should be lowered back into the tank to cool completely. Never return a unit of semen to the tank once information technology has been removed from the cane.

Thawing Procedures

The correct thawing recommendation for semen in straws is not the same for all AI organizations. However, about all organizations now recommend warm-h2o thawing of straws for ten to threescore seconds. For optimum results, follow the specific recommendations of the semen processor. Breeders may utilize semen from various AI organizations, only practice simply one thawing process. The National Association of Beast Breeders has recommended that, when in doubt, 90 degrees to 95 degrees for a minimum of twoscore seconds should be used as a universal thawing recommendation.

A major business concern with warm-water thaw is the danger of cold daze when the straw is mishandled subsequently thawing. Cold shock is the permanent injury to sperm acquired by a sudden decrease in semen temperature after thawing. Information technology occurs when semen is thawed and then subjected to common cold environmental temperatures before reaching the cow.

The severity of impairment depends on charge per unit and span of temperature drib. If precautions are taken to prevent cold daze, the advantage of warm thaw will be realized.

Hither are some thawing tips:

• E'er keep insemination equipment clean, dry out and warm.
• Use a thermometer; do non guess at the temperature. Cheque the thermometer for accurateness at least every six months with a reference thermometer.
• Utilise an insulated water bath designed for thawing semen or a ane-pint wide-oral fissure thermos which is deep enough to immerse the entire straw. Recently, electronic thawing devices which maintain water temperature accurately between 95 degrees and 98 degrees take been developed. These are convenient to use when breeding many cows at one time.
• Never thaw more one unit of semen at a time. You lot brood your cows individually, so you should thaw units of semen individually.
• Gently shake the straw equally it is taken from the tank to remove any liquid nitrogen that may exist retained in the cotton wool plug end of the straw.

Time the thaw with a watch to avoid guessing. When possible or practical, apply thawing recommendations of the AI organisation from which the semen was processed. When non possible, use NAAB'south recommendation for 90 degrees to 95 degrees for a minimum of xl seconds.

During Insemination

One of the most frequent chances for semen damage is during send to the cow. Afterward thawing, the semen temperature must be maintained every bit close to 95 degrees as possible. Handling thawed semen and preparing the insemination rod should be done in a sheltered, heated surface area.

Proper steps for handling semen include:

1.  While the semen is thawing, warm the insemination rod by rubbing information technology briskly with a newspaper towel. In cold weather, place the warm rod inside article of clothing then it will be close to the body and maintain warmth.
2.  Afterwards the semen is thawed for the required time, dry it thoroughly with a paper towel and protect it from rapid cooling.
3.  Adjust the air space in the straw to assure that no semen is lost when the end of the straw is cut off. This tin can be washed by slightly flicking the wrist while holding the straw at the crimp sealed cease.
4. Transfer the straw to the rod and cut the tip of the crimp-sealed cease of the straw squarely and through the air space. Only sharp scissors or a especially designed straw cutter should exist used. Make sure to cut the straw "square" to attain a good seal with the sheath.
5. Wrap the assembled insemination rod in a clean, dry paper towel, and constrict information technology within your clothing for transportation to the moo-cow. Do not place the rod in your mouth or carry information technology uncovered in your hand.
6. Inseminate the cow within minutes after the semen has been thawed. The flow of time betwixt removing the semen from the tank and depositing the semen in the cow should non exceed 15 minutes.

Semen Transfer

When transferring semen betwixt tanks, follow these tips:

1. Have the tanks side by side and as close every bit possible. Fill the tanks with nitrogen before transfer, if possible.
2. Have the appropriate canister in each semen tank in the middle position.
3. Transfer the canes quickly (within three to five seconds). Never touch the units of semen with blank fingers.

It is essential that frozen semen exist handled and thawed carefully and properly in order to obtainoptimum results. It also is important to bargain simply with reputable, well-established AI organizations considering their semen has been candy nether standard, controlled conditions that are evaluated routinely.

Insemination Process

Although not part of the female genital tract, the rectum (terminal portion of the large intestine) is an important organ for you to become familiar with because your arm within the moo-cow will exist working through this thin-walled tube. The rectum is 10 to 12 inches long and very stretchable. That is of import considering it is through the rectum that you volition manipulate the cervix.

The anus serves as a valve between the rectum and the outside. It is made up of a circular (handbag string) muscle located directly under the skin. Information technology surrounds the very terminate of the rectum. Once more, the anus is stretchable, hence, your hand and arm tin can easily slip into the rectum.

Circular muscle contractions move along the rectal wall toward the outside. When strong, these contractions may block your paw from moving forward and make it difficult to manipulate the genital organs through the rectal wall.

Semen Placement

The insemination process is quite straightforward. However, since relatively few sperm cells will exist used, their placement is critical. The semen should be placed in the torso of the uterus just in front end of the cervix. You can recognize the proper site by the alter in tissue consistency—from firm and hard in the neck to soft and spongy in the uterus. To accomplish the highest possible fertility rate, semen should be deposited at the very front end end of the cervix. The internal (or front) end of the cervix is often chosen the inductive cervical os. To deposit semen at this location requires the use of a special device chosen Cassou pipette, or "AI gun." The recto-vaginal insemination process is used. The inseminator places his hand in the rectum and manipulates the reproductive tract so that the gun passes through the vagina, and then information technology is manipulated through the cervical rings, and so held at the internal opening of the neck for semen deposition. In adequately restrained cattle this volition take 30 seconds to ii minutes. At first, yet, passing an insemination syringe might not exist easy because you might encounter natural obstructions on your way to the target.

Figure ii. Proper placement of insemination gun to deposit semen in the body of the uterus.

Beware of Obstacles

 The forepart end of the vagina forms a round blind pouch where it joins the backward projecting cervix. This blind pouch is normally from .v to one inch deep, surrounding the entire dome-shaped dorsum stop of the cervix. Y'all'll meet other obstacles once you're within the cervical culvert. Firm, finger-like projections arranged in three to four circular rings extend into the culvert. These crusade the passageway to be crookedand incorporate blind pockets, or dead ends. The circular blind pouch of the vagina and the winding cervical canal with its dead ends are the 2 major stumbling blocks for anyone learning how to artificially inseminate.

Next to rut detection, semen placement error (past the technician) is most likely to touch on fertility. Right semen placement is very difficult to confirm in the field. It is impossible to bank check pipette placement. The pipette position changes also hands. Postmortem tracts or examining culled cows inseminated with dye can exist used to check semen placement after slaughter. Studies using dye deposition followed by slaughter have shown that up to 70 percentage of the cows are inseminated incorrectly. The dye was placed in the vagina, posterior cervix, uterine horn, or bladder. The target for semen degradation is the anterior cervical os, a difficult site to find. Inexperienced inseminators often do not laissez passer the pipette far enough, or they laissez passer it too far into the uterine horns. Since the body of the uterus is only .5 to .75 inches in length, pipette passage 1 inch into the uterus results in most of the semen entering simply one horn, effectively reducing conception. Semen deposition is ofttimes made too quickly, and semen takes the avenue of least resistance. If one horn is non as open every bit the other, information technology does not receive enough semen. Take your fourth dimension while breeding a cow and depositing the semen. It only takes a few extra seconds to make sure semen is deposited correctly. The plunger should be depressed over a 5-second period, allowing the semen to flow slowly and evenly, divided between horns. In non-meaning cows, walls of the uterus are soft and spongy. Inseminating syringes should never go across the forepart cease of the cervix, because it is also piece of cake to poke into or through the uterine wall. This could cause infection and perhaps even fatal peritonitis.

Germ-free Technique

Wash your easily. Inseminating cows is an invasion into the delicate uterine surroundings that is very conducive to growing bacteria. Bacteria on your hands could be transferred to your inseminating gun during the loading procedure. If carried into the uterus during insemination, these organisms could thrive and abound apace resulting in metritis and infertility.

Using Technicians

Professional technicians are more successful at insemination than inexperienced owners or managers. Inseminators should periodically nourish AI courses in order to meliorate or correct techniques. Option of a qualified inseminator is an important element in the success of the bogus insemination program. While the insemination process is simple to understand, it does require considerable manipulative skill. Semen-selling companies bear three or 4 day training programs, which volition provide individuals with sufficient skill to begin inseminating. Yet, recently trained individuals generally experience lower conception rates until they have inseminated a number of animals. Regular practice at inseminating is required to maintain high formulation rates. In many localities, AI studs have trained inseminators who provide insemination service for a reasonable fee. Cattle operations where artificial insemination is routinely used often accept a well-trained individual who may be available as a technician.

Earlier producers brand a decision whether to rent a trained technician or to railroad train a member of the farm team, they should weigh the considerable price of a reduced conception rate during the learning process against the fees paid to a trained technician.

References

A.I. Management Manual (2d Edition) American Breeders Service, DeForest WI.

"Estrous synchronization and bogus insemination in beef herds." (1988). Virginia Cooperative Extension Service. Publication 400-034. Blacksburg, VA.

"Recommended minimum standards for bogus insemination training." (1988). National Clan of Beast Breeders. Columbia, MO.

"Semen – handle with care." (1987). Virginia Polytechnic Establish, Blacksburg, VA.

Glenn Selk, Retired Extension Animate being Reproduction Specialist

Glenn Selk
Retired Extension Animal Reproduction Specialist

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Source: https://extension.okstate.edu/fact-sheets/artificial-insemination-for-beef-cattle.html

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